Building Blue Economies: Small-Scale Fisheries as the Front Line Against IUU and for Food Security

• The Indo-Pacific area has turned into a playground in the twenty-first century, where the unbridled pursuit of illicit fishing profits is endangering not only the fragile marine ecosystems but also the socioeconomic stability of coastal communities.
• According to the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO), with an estimated yearly value of $15 billion, illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing is most prevalent in the Indo-Pacific region.
• This research explores the role of small-scale fishers in combating IUU fishing and fostering sustainable food systems within blue economy frameworks.
• However, challenges such as policy misalignment, marginalisation of local voices, and lack of institutional support persist.

The Indo-Pacific area has turned into a playground in the twenty-first century, where the unbridled pursuit of illicit fishing profits is endangering not only the fragile marine ecosystems but also the socioeconomic stability of coastal communities. The vast maritime area that links the Pacific and Indian oceans is referred to as the “Indo-Pacific.” An essential maritime route for global trade and commerce linking the Middle East, Africa, South Asia, and East Asia is the Indo-Pacific region. The geopolitical, economic, and security aspects of the “Indo-Pacific” region have made it a popular strategic framework. It acknowledges the growing economic interdependence and strategic interests of major powers like China, Japan, South Korea, and India in the Pacific and Indian Oceans. For many countries in the region, this area is a vital lifeline, and it has emerged as a focal point for conversations about maritime disputes, trade, regional security, and diplomatic initiatives. In recognition of its strategic importance, the Indo-Pacific region has drawn more attention recently. Some of the busiest shipping routes in the world pass through it, and it is home to important sea lanes of communication.

The livelihoods of the communities residing in those coastal regions, marine biodiversity, and sustainable fisheries are all at risk due to the worldwide problem of Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated (IUU) fishing. Global relations and marine ecosystems are seriously threatened by Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated (IUU) fishing, which is still a major problem. Illegal fishing in the Indo-Pacific area is defined as any fishing activity that contravenes the rules and laws of the coastal states. Using fishing gear that is prohibited, fishing without a license, and capturing endangered species are all examples of this. Food security, marine ecosystems, and fish stock sustainability are all seriously threatened by illegal fishing in this area, which is primarily motivated by financial gain. According to the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO), with an estimated yearly value of $15 billion, illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing is most prevalent in the Indo-Pacific region. The livelihoods of those who live along the coast and rely on fishing for their subsistence are both impacted by this practice.

The concept of blue economies emphasises the sustainable use of marine resources for economic growth, improved livelihoods, and marine ecosystem health. Small-scale fishing communities are central to this vision, yet their contributions are often undermined by the prevalent challenge of Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated (IUU) fishing. This research explores the role of small-scale fishers in combating IUU fishing and fostering sustainable food systems within blue economy frameworks. Through the case study of the Malacca Strait, Lombok Strait, Sunda Strait and Palk Strait in the Indo-Pacific region, the study explores how small-scale fishers use traditional methods to monitor marine ecosystems, detect IUU activities, and adapt to changing environmental conditions. 

As it becomes necessary to consider their role in addressing the issue of illegal fishing in the Indo-Pacific region, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad) have recently become involved in the fight against this illicit activity. Given its centrality in the Indo-Pacific, the ASEAN’s perspective on this illegal activity will be examined from a regional perspective. Contrarily, Quad’s primary goal in the Indo-Pacific region is to address China’s maritime activities and expanding regional influence to combat IUU fishing. In order to protect marine resources, address security, environmental, and socioeconomic impacts, and improve regional stability, these international organisations have coordinated their efforts. They have since unanimously urged the necessity of bolstering legal frameworks, encouraging sustainable fishing methods, and cultivating regional collaboration.

However, challenges such as policy misalignment, marginalisation of local voices, and lack of institutional support persist. The findings highlight the importance of empowering small-scale fishing communities through capacity-building, access to technology, and policy reforms that address structural inequalities. By aligning the goals of blue economy initiatives with the needs of these communities, the study focuses on a justice-centred approach that ensures the equitable distribution of marine resources. This research underscores the potential of small-scale fishing communities to act as stewards of ocean sustainability, highlighting their pivotal role in achieving the dual goals of combating IUU fishing and transforming global food systems. 

Strait Of Malacca

The Strait of Malacca is the world’s second busiest commercial shipping lane, with an average of 200 ships passing through daily. Malaysia shared 11,320 km^2 with Indonesia in the Strait. The total number of fishing establishments throughout the north coast of Java and the Malacca Strait coast of Sumatra accounts for 146,000. The majority of the fishing establishments in the coastal area are small-scale fishing households, and the majority of fishery management is by private enterprises, about 98.3 per cent for the Malacca Strait coast. Marine capture fisheries activities are regulated by the Department of Fisheries (DOF) through a vessel licensing system. Approximately 70% of fishermen in Peninsular Malaysia operate in the Strait of Malacca, where the number of fishing vessels in use is nearly double that of the east coast.

Assessment of the current fisheries state suggests serious stock degradation and overfishing. The living standard as well as income level of small-scale fishing households in the coastal area is significantly lower compared with the medium-scale fishing households, due to which the medium-scale fisheries have fewer social problems. There is a general tendency for the living standard as well as the income level of fishing households to improve with the enlargement of the size of the fisheries management. Malacca Strait, being an important shipping lane, contains a high concentration of heavy metals and hydrocarbons in the Strait relative to other areas, although detailed analysis indicated that the current levels of heavy metals and hydrocarbons found in the fish and shellfish do not pose a major threat to public health. Siltation has been associated with a decline in water quality, which can negatively impact the health of fish and shellfish, especially species that develop during their early stages in shallow coastal waters. Piracy has posed a significant issue in the Strait since the 1990s, with about 25 reported attacks in 1994, rising to 220 in 2000 and slightly decreasing to just over 150 in 2004. The notable drop in piracy incidents after 2004 is largely due to the heightened naval patrols by regional forces in the area.

The strait is a vital fishing ground, especially for Malaysia, supporting numerous small-scale fishers who rely on traditional methods. Over the years, there has been a notable shift in species composition, with squid becoming increasingly dominant. The enactment of the Fishery Act of 1963 further strengthened the control of fishing effort and the establishment of the Monitoring, Control and Surveillance (MCS) system to assist in fishery management.

Lombok Strait

Small-scale fisheries in the Lombok Strait, situated between the Indonesian islands of Bali and Lombok and the Coral Triangle, are integral to the local economy and food security and are renowned for their rich marine biodiversity, including vital tuna breeding grounds. This is an important route because of its high use by shipping vessels, both from within Indonesia and from abroad. These fisheries, particularly in areas like Labuhan Lombok in West Nusa Tenggara, primarily target species such as tuna, utilising methods like Fish Aggregating Devices(FADs) to enhance catch efficiency. Lombok Timur has the largest fish production and the biggest fishing port, and the fisheries sector makes a very significant contribution to the local economy. However, the region faces environmental challenges along with the presence of oil-degrading bacteria such as Aeromonas and Pseudomonas, indicating hydrocarbon pollution, likely stemming from heavy maritime traffic and oil transportation through the strait. The Strait has experienced maritime security issues, including piracy and armed robbery. Between 2003 and 2017, there were 14 reported incidents involving various types of ships, with causes ranging from grounding and collisions to sinkings and fires. Furthermore, initiatives like the Regional Cooperation Agreement on Combating Piracy and Armed Robbery against Ships in Asia (ReCAAP).

Participative fisheries management is a relatively new approach in Lombok. The Lombok Timur has made notable efforts towards implementing the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries (CCRF).In many cases, there have been significant improvements in the reduction of illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing practices. Maritime security remains a concern due to its strategic importance due for which Indonesia has implemented measures such as the Traffic Separation Scheme (TSS) to manage vessel traffic and enhance safety in the strait. The International Maritime Organisation’s (IMO) Maritime Safety Committee (MSC) and Facilitation Committee work in close cooperation on matters related to the prevention and regulation of drug smuggling on ships involved in international maritime traffic.

Sunda Strait

The Sunda Strait, located between Java and Sumatra in Indonesia, serves as a vital maritime passage linking the Indian Ocean with the Java Sea. Fishing activity in the Sunda Strait is carried out throughout the year, ideally divided into three different seasons: peak production season, medium production season, and low production season. Due to various causes, such as unbalanced income and expenditure, have caused difficulties in the sustainability of fishers’ households and have led to poor conditions in the long term.

The Sunda Strait is rich in small pelagic fish species such as mackerel, scad, yellow stripe scad, mackerel tuna, and anchovy. Despite the abundance, the sustainability of the fisheries is a concern. Capture productivity is shaped by both environmental and human-related influences. Key natural factors impacting productivity include the availability of fish, the timing of the fishing season, and oceanographic conditions on the human side. Major contributing elements are the size and capacity of fishing vessels and gear, along with the expertise and skill level of the fishermen. The Strait is a key maritime passage that faces significant threats from IUU fishing because of its strategic importance and abundant marine life. Unauthorised fishing, carried out by both local and foreign vessels, has been reported in the area. These illegal activities contribute to the depletion of fish populations and endanger the livelihoods of small-scale fishers who depend on sustainable fishing for their livelihood and food security.

Palk Strait

Palk Strait lies between the island nation of Sri Lanka and the South East Peninsula of India. Around 1965, the government provided loans and subsidies to the people to encourage them to invest and adopt trawling, although it was quite damaging to the ecosystem, which eventually led to most of the local population around the bay shifting from small-scale fishing to mechanised export-oriented fisheries. The fishers in the Palk Bay have especially increased in the last few decades. While smaller-scale fishermen have been the first and worst sufferers of losses to their livelihoods due to large trawlers, there was also extensive habitat destruction and overfishing, which was faced collectively.

It has been noted that Indian fishers are employing prohibited fishing techniques-such as bottom trawling, that are banned both in Sri Lanka and under international norms. The Palk Strait’s shallow waters and ecologically sensitive coral reef ecosystems make it unsuitable for such destructive methods. Although India’s West Bengal Marine Fishing Regulation Act of 1993 restricts trawler operations to beyond three nautical miles from the coast, these regulations are frequently ignored because of the region’s high fish yield.

Iuu Fishing: Impact And Prevention In Southeast Asia And Indo-Pacific 

There are various indications of corrupt practices in the fishing industry in several Southeast Asian countries. Based on UNODC research, the primary corruption offences found in the fisheries sector pertain to bribery and abuse of function occurring within the preparation, fishing, processing and other stages of the fisheries chain. The proportion of Asian fishing vessels and Asian nationals employed in the fishing sector is an overwhelming majority compared to the rest of the world, and the majority of IUU fishing in Southeast Asia is related to trawlers and purse seiners.

The increase in IUU fishing activities, which threaten the sustainability of fisheries resources and the marine environment, led to the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) member countries formulating principles and sustainable fisheries known as “ The Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries” (CCRF) in 1995. The availability of surveillance infrastructure and facilities to monitor Indonesian waters for preventing and combating IUU fishing has become imperative due to the wide coverage over the territorial waters. The efforts to prevent IUU fishing in Indonesia have been undertaken through licensing, fishing monitoring and stringent law enforcement mechanisms, including independent surveillance operations.

Both the countries of India and Sri Lanka face the concerns of IUU fishing, especially due to the encroachment of trawlers into each other’s waters by trespassing on the International Maritime Boundary Line (IMBL). The Fisheries Act 1985 was amended in 2019 to increase fines for foreign vessels encroaching on Malaysian waters to tackle any unwanted consequences. This also led to a committee being formulated, including the Department of Fisheries(DOF), Malaysian Maritime Enforcement Agency(MMEA), Marine Police, Customs, and Malaysian Quarantine and Inspection Services (MAQIS) to combat IUU fishing.

A number of measures have been implemented to combat illicit fishing in the Indo-Pacific area, such as the creation of monitoring, control, and surveillance systems (MCS) and the adoption of regional fisheries management organisations (RFMOs). Nevertheless, additional efforts are required to fortify these programs and guarantee their efficacy. To solve this issue, governments, the commercial sector, and civic society will need to collaborate in order to improve fisheries management, encourage sustainable fishing methods, and strengthen law enforcement. Given the knowledge of illicit fishing and its effects, it is imperative to view it as one of the most serious threats to maritime security that requires a thorough and coordinated effort from a variety of stakeholders in the Indo-Pacific area and beyond.

As a result, the Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA), a significant regional forum, seeks to address common issues in the area and encourage communication and collaboration. These groups seek to address the many and varied factors that contribute to illegal fishing in the Indo-Pacific area, such as a lack of political will, poor governance, corruption, and insufficient enforcement measures. In addition, there are problems with fishing fleets being overcapacity, which makes matters worse. Thus, resource security, economic growth, and regional stability all depend on maritime security in the Indo-Pacific area. The region’s nations depend on maritime security and stability due to non-traditional security threats like illegal fishing, smuggling, piracy, and territorial disputes, which necessitate international cooperation to protect the safety and welfare of maritime operations.

References:

• _{Mhardjo, K. (n.d.). Socio-economic characteristics of small-scale fishing households in the north coast of Java and the Malacca Strait coast of Sumatra. Directorate General of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, Jakarta.}
• _{Purohit, M. (2017, November 28). Palk Bay: Trawled and damaged. India Water Portal. https://www.indiawaterportal.org/agriculture/livelihoods/palk-bay-trawled-and-damaged}
• _{Republic of Indonesia, Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries. (2016). National Plan of Action to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing (NPOA-IUU Fishing) – Indonesia. FAOLEX. https://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/ins165159.pdf}
• _{Irnawati, R., Nurdin, H. S., Susanto, A., Surilayani, D., Hamzah, A., & Supadminingsih, F. N. (2022). Multidimensional scaling for sustainability of small pelagic fisheries in Sunda Strait. Agriculture and Natural Resources, 56(6), 1007–1018. https://li01.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/anres/article/view/251414/171980}
• _{Sivaramanan, S. (2022). Potential solutions to environmental conflict on the exploitation of fish stocks in Palk Strait among fishermen of India and Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka Journal of Aquatic Sciences, 28(1), 1-10.https://sljas.sljol.info/articles/10.4038/sljas.v28i1.7606:contentReference[oaicite:3]{index=3}

Lakshmi Karlekar & Aanchal Pandey

Lakshmi Karlekar, PhD (lakshmi.karlekar@res.christuniversity.in), is a Research Fellow of International Studies, and Aanchal Pandey is a BA LLB Student at the School of Law, both at CHRIST (Deemed to be University), Central Campus, Hosur Road, Bangalore, Karnataka. Views expressed are the author’s own.